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Likelihood of Confusion in Trademark Law
 by Richard L. Kirkpatrick
 
 Copyright: 1995-2012
 Last Updated: November 2012

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  • ISBN Number: 0872240851
  • Page Count: 491
  • Number of Volumes: 1
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Likelihood of confusion is one of the trickiest, most confusing, and most important areas of trademark law.
 
PLI’s Likelihood of Confusion in Trademark Law gives this vital concept the full coverage it deserves, while addressing it in the lucid, straightforward way that attorneys and interested laypersons can easily understand.
 
Written by a leading practitioner with more than 25 years of experience in trademark and unfair competition law, this essential reference clearly explains the generally accepted method used by the courts to determine whether likelihood of confusion exists in trademark cases — the multiple factor test. Likelihood of Confusion in Trademark Law is packed with step-by-step checklists and hundreds of examples that help to spotlight the kinds of trademarks that are likely to be confused with established trademarks and those that are not. Included are effective, trial-tested strategies and tips on how to outmaneuver your opponent in court, whatever side you represent.
 
Updated at least once a year, Likelihood of Confusion in Trademark Law is a must-have reference for trademark specialists and other intellectual property attorneys and important reading for corporate counsel, generalists, and corporate executives.
 
Testimonials
 
”[Likelihood of Confusion in Trademark Law] gets to the heart of likelihood to cause confusion, and explains what every trademark lawyer needs to know about this essential trademark element.” 

 —Martha Sarra, Trademark Counsel, The Kroger Company
 
”Kirkpatrick gives the practical insight that all trademark law practitioners should have at their fingertips.”

—Chetuan L. Shaffer, Intellectual Property Counsel, Pacific Bell/Southwestern Bell
 
”[Likelihood of Confusion in Trademark Law] sheds needed light on an important area of trademark law.”

—Hal Weinstein, Trademark Counsel, The Black and Decker Corporation
 
”A comprehensive reference tool for both novices and experienced trademark practitioners. Kirkpatrick does a first-rate job of relating the subject of each chapter to consumer expectation.”

—New York Law Journal
  Foreword; And Table of Abbreviations
Chapter 1: Principles of Likelihood of Confusion
  • § 1:1 : “Likely to Cause Confusion” Is an Element of Pleading and Proof1-2
    • § 1:1.1 : Federal Statutes and Case Law1-5
    • § 1:1.2 : State Statutes and Common Law1-8
    • § 1:1.3 : “Passing Off” and “Palming Off” Distinguished from Likelihood of Confusion1-16
    • § 1:1.4 : “Confusing Similarity” Distinguished1-17
  • § 1:2 : Private Interests, Public Policies1-17
  • § 1:3 : Causation and Predicates of Confusion1-21
  • § 1:4 : Actionable Confusion1-30
    • § 1:4.1 : Source Confusion1-30
    • § 1:4.2 : Sponsorship Confusion1-31
    • § 1:4.3 : Reverse Confusion1-32
    • § 1:4.4 : Subliminal and Associational Confusion1-35
    • § 1:4.5 : Confusion of Marks and of Products1-36
  • § 1:5 : Other States of Mind Distinguished1-37
    • § 1:5.1 : Dilution1-37
    • § 1:5.2 : Calling to Mind1-39
  • § 1:6 : Relevant Confused Persons: Potential Purchasers, Purchasers and Nonpurchasers1-40
  • § 1:7 : Relevant Time of Confusion1-44
  • § 1:8 : Proof1-50
    • § 1:8.1 : Direct and Indirect Evidence1-50
    • § 1:8.2 : Burden and Quantum; Special Cases1-52
    • § 1:8.3 : Evidentiary Effect of Registration1-60
    • § 1:8.4 : Lay and Expert Opinion1-61
    • § 1:8.5 : PTO Actions1-62
    • § 1:8.6 : Consents in the PTO1-67
    • § 1:8.7 : Foreign Acts1-68
    • § 1:8.8 : Prior Inconsistent Arguments1-69
    • § 1:8.9 : Benefit of the Doubt1-70
  • § 1:9 : Benefit of the Doubt1-71
Chapter 2: The Multiple Factor Test
  • § 2:1 : The Problem2-2
  • § 2:2 : The Perspective of the Marketplace2-3
  • § 2:3 : Legal Precedent of Only Limited Value2-6
  • § 2:4 : The “Multiple Factor” Method2-8
  • § 2:5 : Flexibility and Interrelatedness of the Factors2-19
  • § 2:6 : Shifting Relevance and Weight of the Factors2-23
  • § 2:7 : The Factors As Applied to Cases of Competitive and Noncompetitive Goods2-30
  • § 2:8 : The Factors in Registrability Proceedings2-32
  • § 2:9 : The Factors As Legal or Factual Questions2-36
  • § 2:10 : Beyond Confusion: The Factors and Equity2-41
  • § 2:11 : Preliminary Injunction2-44
    • § 2:11.1 : Likelihood of Success2-46
      • [A] : Evidence2-48
    • § 2:11.2 : Irreparable Injury2-51
    • § 2:11.3 : Balance of Harms2-53
      • [A] : Harms to Plaintiff2-54
      • [B] : Harms to Defendant2-55
    • § 2:11.4 : Public Interest2-57
  • § 2:12 : Summary Judgment2-59
    • § 2:12.1 : The Factors Applied2-61
      • [A] : Actual Confusion2-67
      • [B] : Intent2-71
      • [C] : Similarity of Marks2-74
Chapter 3: Strength of the Senior Mark
  • § 3:1 : Strength and the Degree of Protection3-1
  • § 3:2 : Strong or Famous Marks3-5
  • § 3:3 : Weak Marks3-12
  • § 3:4 : Inherent and Acquired Strength3-18
    • § 3:4.1 : Inherent Strength3-19
    • § 3:4.2 : Acquired Strength3-26
  • § 3:5 : Factors for Gauging Acquired Strength3-29
    • § 3:5.1 : Direct Evidence3-29
    • § 3:5.2 : Circumstantial Evidence3-30
  • § 3:6 : Third-Party Marks3-39
    • § 3:6.1 : Relevance3-39
    • § 3:6.2 : Weight3-44
    • § 3:6.3 : Problematic Types3-48
    • § 3:6.4 : Number3-54
    • § 3:6.5 : Proof3-55
  • § 3:7 : Effect of Registration and Incontestability3-61
Chapter 4: Similarity of the Marks
  • § 4:1 : Similarity in Context4-2
  • § 4:2 : Degree of Similarity4-6
  • § 4:3 : The Three-Part Test: Sound, Meaning, Appearance4-7
    • § 4:3.1 : Commercial Impression4-7
    • § 4:3.2 : Sound4-9
    • § 4:3.3 : Meaning4-13
      • [A] : Word Versus Picture4-16
      • [B] : Foreign Word Versus English Word4-17
      • [C] : Foreign Word Versus Foreign Word4-18
    • § 4:3.4 : Appearance4-19
      • [A] : Design Versus Design4-21
      • [B] : Letters Versus Letters4-22
      • [C] : Different Word/Similar Design4-23
  • § 4:4 : Consider the Marks As Would the Relevant Public4-24
  • § 4:5 : Consider the Marks Singly4-25
  • § 4:6 : Weigh Similarities More Heavily Than Differences4-27
  • § 4:7 : Compare the Marks in Their Entireties4-30
  • § 4:8 : Consider the Marks in Their Settings4-34
  • § 4:9 : Give Dominant Portions of Composite Marks Greater Weight4-43
    • § 4:9.1 : Family Features4-46
    • § 4:9.2 : Words/Designs4-48
    • § 4:9.3 : Letters/Designs4-49
    • § 4:9.4 : Effect of Registration Disclaimers4-50
  • § 4:10 : Marks Having Portions in Common4-51
    • § 4:10.1 : One Mark Incorporating Another4-52
    • § 4:10.2 : Common Portion Comparatively Strong, Dominant4-57
    • § 4:10.3 : Common Portion Weak, Recessive4-58
    • § 4:10.4 : Common Portion Generic or Functional4-63
    • § 4:10.5 : Given Name/Surname4-65
    • § 4:10.6 : Marks Suggesting an Association4-66
    • § 4:10.7 : Marks with Source Modifiers4-69
    • § 4:10.8 : Marks with Geographic Modifiers4-70
  • § 4:11 : Reversal of Elements4-71
  • § 4:12 : The Familiar Versus the Unfamiliar4-72
  • § 4:13 : Parody4-72
  • § 4:14 : Combining Complainant’s Marks4-73
Chapter 5: Product Relatedness
  • § 5:1 : Governing Principles and Interests5-1
    • § 5:1.1 : Extent of the Right5-2
    • § 5:1.2 : Limitation of the Right5-3
    • § 5:1.3 : Three Product Categories5-5
  • § 5:2 : Relatedness Is Variable and a Matter of Degree5-5
  • § 5:3 : Mind Over Matter5-8
  • § 5:4 : Bases for Inferring Consumer Perception of Product Relatedness5-10
  • § 5:5 : Generalizing the Products5-15
  • § 5:6 : Practices of the Parties and the Trade5-18
  • § 5:7 : Diversification of Products Under the Same Mark5-20
  • § 5:8 : Comparative Quality5-25
  • § 5:9 : Comparative Price5-28
  • § 5:10 : Expansion/Intervening Rights5-29
  • § 5:11 : Effect of Registration5-36
  • § 5:12 : Channels of Trade5-38
    • § 5:12.1 : General Principles5-38
    • § 5:12.2 : Sales in Same Stores5-42
    • § 5:12.3 : Store Sections or Departments5-44
    • § 5:12.4 : Advertising5-45
    • § 5:12.5 : Institutional Purchasers5-47
    • § 5:12.6 : Wholesale Versus Retail5-48
    • § 5:12.7 : Internet5-49
    • § 5:12.8 : Geographic Markets5-50
Chapter 6: The Consumers and Their Degree of Care
  • § 6:1 : Identifying the Relevant Public6-1
  • § 6:2 : Standard of Care6-3
  • § 6:3 : Mixed Types of Consumers6-6
  • § 6:4 : Lower Degree of Ordinary Care6-8
  • § 6:5 : Higher Degree of Ordinary Care6-12
Chapter 7: Actual Confusion
  • § 7:1 : Actual Confusion Not Required7-2
  • § 7:2 : Weight of the Evidence7-2
  • § 7:3 : Quantum of Proof7-4
  • § 7:4 : Types of Confused Persons7-6
  • § 7:5 : Types and Degree of Confusion7-11
  • § 7:6 : Admissibility7-15
  • § 7:7 : Defendant’s Exploitation of Lack of Actual Confusion7-17
  • § 7:8 : Plaintiff’s Explanation of Lack of Actual Confusion7-25
  • § 7:9 : Defendant’s Explanation and Rebuttal of Actual Confusion7-29
    • § 7:9.1 : Causation7-29
    • § 7:9.2 : Bias7-32
    • § 7:9.3 : Vagueness7-34
    • § 7:9.4 : Short-Lived Confusion7-35
    • § 7:9.5 : Actual Reverse Confusion7-36
  • § 7:10 : Surveys7-37
    • § 7:10.1 : Universe7-41
    • § 7:10.2 : Setting7-44
    • § 7:10.3 : Stimulus7-46
    • § 7:10.4 : Control7-47
    • § 7:10.5 : Questions7-49
    • § 7:10.6 : Rate of Confusion7-51
Chapter 8: The Junior User's Intent
  • § 8:1 : Intent to Confuse Not Required; Good Faith Not a Defense8-1
  • § 8:2 : Knowledge8-5
  • § 8:3 : Wrongful Intent8-8
    • § 8:3.1 : Type and Weight of the Evidence8-10
    • § 8:3.2 : Presumption or Inference of Likelihood of Confusion8-12
    • § 8:3.3 : Similarity of the Marks8-16
    • § 8:3.4 : Prior Contacts Between the Parties8-19
    • § 8:3.5 : Continued Use After Protest8-20
    • § 8:3.6 : Other Indicators of Bad Faith8-22
  • § 8:4 : Rightful Intent8-27
    • § 8:4.1 : Explanation and Persuasion8-27
    • § 8:4.2 : Intent to Compete8-28
    • § 8:4.3 : Intent to Copy8-31
      • [A] : Functional Features; Ideas and Concepts8-32
      • [B] : Generic/Descriptive Terms8-33
      • [C] : Territorially Remote Marks8-34
      • [D] : Otherwise When Likelihood of Confusion Is Not Indicated8-34
    • § 8:4.4 : Intent to Parody or Amuse8-34
    • § 8:4.5 : Other Indicators of Good Faith8-35
  • § 8:5 : Trademark Searches and Advice of Counsel8-38
Chapter 9: Appendix A: Color Illustrations of Trade Dress Infringement Cases
Chapter 10: Afterword and Further Reading
Chapter 11: Table of Cases
Chapter 12: Index to Likelihood of Confusion in Trademark Law

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